Religion, geopolitics and propaganda: The intersection of Russian, Chinese and Iranian influence operations in the Western Balkans

Narratives about “protecting the Orthodox World,” for example, have been frequently used in discourses related to Russian foreign policy.

In the era of modern conflicts, wars are no longer fought only on the battlefield, but also within the information space. Alongside the military confrontation, a parallel battle is being waged to control narratives and shape public perception. Propaganda, information manipulation, and disinformation have become key instruments of geopolitical competition.

The Western Balkans, due to its complex political history, inherited tensions, and the fragile structure of its media landscape, remains one of the most vulnerable regions to such influence operations.

Recent developments in the Middle East, tensions between great powers, and global competition for influence have generated a new wave of narratives that are rapidly spreading in the Balkan information space. In many cases, these narratives are not simply reflections of international developments, but part of broader political communication strategies by state actors seeking to influence public opinion in the region.

Russia, China, and in some cases Iran have built networks of influence across the Balkan media landscape over the years. These networks include traditional media, online portals, cultural and religious organizations, as well as powerful communication networks on social media platforms.

The objective is not always to directly persuade the public to accept a specific narrative. Often the aim is to create confusion, relativize facts, and weaken trust in democratic institutions and traditional sources of information.

In this context, international conflicts are often used as instruments to reshape political debates within the region. A crisis in the Middle East or a clash between great powers can quickly become a polarizing topic in the Balkans’ public discourse. This is because global conflicts are interpreted through ideological and historical frameworks that already exist within the region.

In Serbia, for example, a segment of pro-government media and tabloids disseminate narratives that often align with the editorial lines of Russian state media. The West is portrayed as a destabilizing force in the international order, while Russia is presented as a power that challenges that order and defends the principle of state sovereignty. These narratives have been particularly amplified since the beginning of the war in Ukraine, when parts of the Serbian media promoted the Russian interpretation of the conflict and relativized Moscow’s responsibility for the aggression.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in the entity of Republika Srpska, pro-Russian and anti-Western narratives have also found fertile ground. Media and political actors affiliated with the structures of this entity often reproduce discourses that align with Moscow’s communication strategy. In some cases, these narratives are intertwined with the nationalist rhetoric that is already part of the internal political dynamics of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

An important dimension within this ecosystem of narratives is the religious factor. In the Balkans, religion is not only a matter of personal belief, but often an integral part of national and political identity. For this reason, narratives that present a conflict as a religious confrontation can generate strong emotional reactions within public opinion.

Narratives about “protecting the Orthodox World,” for example, have been frequently used in discourses related to Russian foreign policy. In this context, the Kremlin is portrayed as a defender of Orthodox identity and traditional values ​​against a West depicted as liberal and decadent. Such messages often resonate with segments of public opinion in Serbia and among some Serbian communities throughout the region.

On the other hand, conflicts in the Middle East are sometimes interpreted through a religious narrative that aims to mobilize solidarity with the Muslim populations involved in those conflicts. This approach is occasionally used by propaganda networks linked to various actors. The intersection of religious and geopolitical narratives creates fertile ground for social polarization.

Social media has dramatically accelerated the spread of these narratives. Platforms such as Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), YouTube, and TikTok have become the main channels for the circulation of information across the region.

In this environment, emotional and sensational content spreads much faster than balanced analysis. One of the most common techniques used in these information operations is the manipulation of visual materials. Footage from previous conflicts or from completely different regions is often presented as evidence from current events. In some cases, artificial intelligence technologies are also used to generate videos or images that appear authentic.

Various online portals across the region often republish such materials without sufficient verification, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of disinformation. The more often a piece of information circulates online, the more credible it tends to appear to the public.

In Kosovo, for example, disinformation operations are often linked to political tensions and the situation in the northern part of the country. Narratives circulating in some media outlets and on social networks attempt to portray Kosovo as a destabilizing factor in the region or as a project imposed by the West. These narratives often reflect discourses promoted by some media outlets in Serbia, as well as propaganda networks linked to Russian interests in the region.

In Montenegro, disinformation has been particularly evident during periods of political crisis and elections. Narratives related to national identity, the Orthodox Church, and the country's geopolitical orientation have often been used to polarize public opinion. In many cases, these narratives are spread through coordinated networks on social media platforms.

Another important dimension is the influence of media funded by foreign states.

Media outlets such as RT, Sputnik and other platforms linked to Russia's international media strategy have maintained a significant presence in the region's information space for years, especially in the Serbian language.

Meanwhile, China has invested more in media and cultural diplomacy, promoting narratives related to economic development and a multipolar international order.

Iran, although with more limited influence in the region, occasionally uses religious and ideological narratives to build solidarity with certain communities and promote its interpretation of developments in the Middle East, writes The Balkan Report.

Many of these influence operations work indirectly. Messages are often reproduced by local media, analysts or influencers who are not always aware of their original source. The result is an increasingly fragmented public space.

Rational debate is often replaced by clashes of competing narratives and emotional reactions. Instead of analyzing international conflicts in a critical and balanced way, they are often used to deepen existing divisions within societies.

For the Western Balkans, this represents a serious challenge to democratic stability and the quality of public debate.

In an environment where information is manipulated and propaganda spreads rapidly, citizens face increasing difficulty in distinguishing facts from fabricated narratives.

Therefore, the role of professional journalism becomes even more important. Media that invests in fact-checking and balanced reporting can serve as a counterweight to disinformation.

The Balkans have experienced the consequences of propaganda and information manipulation before. The experiences of the 1990s show that disinformation and false narratives can have real consequences for people's lives and the stability of societies.

For this reason, understanding the mechanisms of propaganda and modern influence operations is essential for protecting the public sphere and maintaining a healthy democratic debate in the region.